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Date sent: Tue, 30 Apr 1996 23:10:55 -0400
Outline
Thesis: Theodore Roosevelt's political presence altered the course of the United States,
transforming it into a superpower fully ready to handle the challenges of any opposition,
and changed the role of the president and executive branch of US government, making it a
force to be reckoned with.
I. Introduction
II. Before Roosevelt
A. Post-Reconstructionist Views
B. The Industrial Revolution
C. The Gilded Age
1. Railroads
2. Robber Barons
3. Immigration
4. Standard Question
D. McKinley
III. The Roosevelt Era
A. Early Life
1. Influence of Parents
2. Invalidism
B. Early Political Career
1. Ending Corruption/Enforcing Laws
2. Political Bosses
3. Governorship
C. Presidential Era
1. Vice Presidential Race
2. Manipulation of the Press
3. Federal Regulatory Laws
4. Foreign Policy
5. Strong Executive Branch
D. Post-Presidential Era
1. Taft
2. The Progressive Party
IV. Post-Rooseveltian America
A. Wilson
1. Continued Progressivism
2. World War I
a. Inactivity
b. Activity
B. Life After Wilson
1. Implementation of Roosevelt's Reforms
2. Roosevelt's Influence Today
3. Influences in the Future
V. Conclusion
Theodore Roosevelt:
The Founder of an Era
The turn of the century has always been a big deal for modern civilizations. One hundred
years of life is quite large compared with the average 70 or so given to most. Because of
that, people tend to look in trends of decades, rather than centuries or millennia. When it
does come time for a new century, when that second digit rotates, as it does so seldom,
people tend to look for change. Events tend to fall before or after the century, not on top
of it, and United States history, particularly, has had a tendency for sudden change at the
century marks. Columbus' accidental discovery of the West Indies in 1492 brought on the
exploration age in the 1500s. Jamestown colony, founded in 1607, was England's first
foothold on the New World. A massive population surge, brought on in part by the import of
Africans, marks entry into the 18th century. Thomas Jefferson's presidency, beginning in
1800, changed the face of American politics. 1900 was a ripe year for change, but needed
someone to help the change arrive. That someone was Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt's
political presence altered the course of the United States, transforming it into a
superpower fully ready to handle the challenges of any opposition, and changed the role of
the president and executive branch of US government, making it a force with which to be
reckoned. As the first president with progressive views, Roosevelt enacted the first
regulatory laws and prosecuted big businesses who had been violating them and others for
years. Roosevelt also initiated the United States' active interests in other countries, and
began to spread the benefits of democracy throughout the world. Before Roosevelt, the
United States was an inward-looking country, largely xenophobic to the calls of the rest of
the world, and chiefly concerned with bettering itself. As one critic put it, "Roosevelt
was the first modern president"(Knoll). After Roosevelt, the United States would remain a
superpower, chiefly interested in all the world's affairs for at least a century (Barck 1).
It would be foolish to assume that Roosevelt was a fantastically powerful individual who
was able to change the course of the United States as easily as Superman might change the
course of a river. It would be more accurate to say Roosevelt was the right person in the
right place at the right time. It is necessary, though, to show how the United States was
progressing, and how Roosevelt's presence merely helped to catalyze the progression. It
has been said that when John Wilkes Booth murdered Abraham Lincoln, he "extinguished the
light of the republic" (Cashman 1). While this is a small hyperbole, it serves as an
example of the general mood that pervaded the period from 1865 to 1901. The early
dominating factor was, of course, Reconstruction. Reconstruction was a dirty game, and
nobody liked it. Johnson fought with congress and the end result proved very little had
changed. The South was still largely agrarian, and the North was commercial. Most
importantly, the Southerners and the Northerners still felt they had as little to do with
each other as a fish does with a bicycle. To the young "Teedie" Roosevelt, this must have
made itself apparent. He was born in a mixed household, where "Theodore Roosevelt (Sr.) was
as profoundly...for the North as Martha Roosevelt was for the south" (Hagedorn 10). The
fact that the family was able to live, from all accounts, very harmoniously, is quite
astonishing and gives credit to the fine parents who raised young Theodore.
Reconstruction's greatest (and perhaps only) accomplishment was the establishment of a
basis for industrialization. The basic destruction of the southern agrarian process
combined with the greater need for items in the North caused the economy of the post-war
United States to shift toward the cities (Nash 576). The general aim of the Untied States
had turned toward the big cities, but was still focused on building the nation's power from
within. And along with the improvement of industry in the United States came the spark of
ingenuity that found itself in the minds of great inventors like Edison and Bell. Once
again maintaining the goal of "hasten[ing] and secur[ing] settlement," both men
concentrated on improvements in communications, improving the transmission of light and
sound (Cashman 14). The presence of these two, who are representative of so many others,
shows the interest the citizens of the United States had at this time in improving their
infrastructure. It is interesting to note here that Roosevelt, as the first president to
make use of the popular press to his advantage, grew up at the same time as these men,
eleven years their junior. The period of the United States directly before Roosevelt's was
known as the Gilded Age, due to a book of the same name by Mark Twain that made use of
references to "gild[ing] refined gold," and "guilt" from Shakespeare combined with the
"guilty, gilden guilds" that had sprung up in the forms of interest groups, labor unions,
and monopolies (Cashman 3-4). Indeed, the most dominant figures in this age (for the
presidents were certainly beneath mention) were the robber barons. These individuals came
to power in two generations. The first, peppered by those such as Jay Gould, Jim Fisk, and
Daniel Drew, rose to the top quickly by acquiring the nation's railroads through not always
legitimate means (Cashman 34). The railroads were power, as can be seen by the significant
rise in miles of rail, nearly a 500% increase from 1865 to 1900. Those who controlled the
railroads controlled the country, and were able to maintain a lock on the industry. Later
robber barons, such as Rockefeller, Carnegie, and, of course, J. P. Morgan, operated much
the same way, eliminating the competition by one way or another until they could control
their industry (Cashman 38). As the three or four thousand tycoons made their fortunes,
defying government, and basically creating a plutocracy of businessmen, another large group
was entering the American melting pot in larger numbers than before. Ten million people
came to the United States between 1860 and 1890, and the great majority of them had little
more worth to their name save the clothes on their back and the boat ticket that had
brought them to America (Cashman 86). Having nowhere to turn, the large majority settled in
the port cities into which they came. These immigrations were largely unrestricted; the
United States not yet having installed a quota system. The Chinese-Exclusion act and the
subsequent "gentlemen's agreement" with Japan slowed the influx of Asian immigration after
1880, but these did not impact the numbers of immigrants as much as one would think.
Americans could not flee, as there was no frontier left to speak of, and assimilation
increasingly failed to be effective. The result was nativism, "a defensive type of
nationalism" (Cashman 106). The need to impose the will of the American civilization onto
other nations can be seen here, in its early stages. The main difference between this era
and the next, in that respect, is that the jingoism had not yet left the country. The
Gilded Age's strongest presidential race would end up to be its last, and the resulting
president, McKinley, can not be classified as a Gilded Age president. However, the issue of
the Gold and Silver standards shows the United States for the last time as a totally
inward-looking nation. Although a metal standard would not disappear from United States
currency until well into the mid-twentieth century, and the question of the purchase of
silver would again be raised by President Franklin Roosevelt, the Free Silver campaign of
William Jennings Bryan versus the Gold Standard enforced by McKinley shows the last
internal economic agitation until the great depression. The National Grange died upon
McKinley's election, and "after the excitement of Bryan's Free Silver campaign died down,
the agrarian ferment largely subsided" (Barck 21). The end of the old era could now begin.
It is ironic that McKinley's presidency ended in assassination, for without the sudden
change of leadership in the White House in 1901, the transformation undergone by the United
States may have appeared as gradual as it was intended to be. McKinley was president over
the "closing years of the nineteenth century, mark[ing] the end of comparative isolation
and the beginning of an epoch during which the United States emerged as a world power"
(Barck 77). Indeed, McKinley fits this description of the end of the nineteenth century
well. He was a very transitionary character; not as bland or powerless as the three who had
come before him, yet still figurehead enough to be led by Mark Hanna, the national
republican boss. McKinley's stare typifies his character: "His stare was intimidating in
its blackness and steadiness...Only very perceptive observers were aware that there was no
real power behind the gaze: McKinley stared in order to concentrate a sluggish, wandering
mind" (Morris 586). McKinley was president when the United States' first modern military
interventions began. However it is clear McKinley was not an expansionist at heart. He
declared in his inaugural address, "We want no wars of conquest; we must avoid the
temptation of territorial aggression"(Cashman 315). However, much of America did want war
with Spain, and after the American ship Maine blew up in Havana, killing 266 soldiers,
Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt called for war with Spain to free Cuba.
The subsequent defeat of the Spanish in 100 days and the capture of the Philippines
demonstrates the expansionist nature of the United States increasing. During the election
of 1900, Bryan ran against McKinley again. This time, both men campaigned on the same side
of the same issue, advocating annexation of overseas territories (Cashman 329). This
confused Democrats and allowed McKinley's re-election for the last year of the nineteenth
century. The progress of the United States from the death of Lincoln to the Assassination
of McKinley has shown the trend away from Jeffersonian views of a loose government,
allowing the people to be independent, and into one more pro-government, like that of
Hamilton. Coupled to this was a tendency to look outside United States borders into the
global community. The pendulum of history had passed its middle mark and was sweeping
upward. It needed, however, an individual to carry it to its apex. Theodore Roosevelt was
in the right place at the right time. Whether he was the right person for the job remains a
matter that must be dealt with. His foundations and his career demonstrate that he was the
perfect person to succeed McKinley and take the United States into its modern era.
Roosevelt was born on October 27, 1858, one week before Buchanan was elected president, and
two and a half years before the outbreak of the Civil war. Not having much in the way of
genuine learning skills at such an early age, Roosevelt, in a sense, "slept through [the
war]" (Hagedorn 11). In another sense, he did not. Theodore Roosevelt was born into a house
of strikingly opposite leaders. His father was a large, cheerful, powerful man, who tended
to be joyful and move quickly. It is safe to say Theodore Roosevelt, junior, received his
stature from the man bearing his name (Morris 34). If Roosevelt's father was a "northern
burgher," his mother was an archetypal Southern belle, refined and elegant. By all accounts
she was absolutely lovely, and had a wonderful taste for the beautiful things in life
(Morris 36). From her, young Theodore inherited his love of the natural, his sense of
decorum, and his strong wit. The even balance that existed in the Roosevelt home fell into
a disarray of sorts as war broke out. TR, Senior was a Lincoln Republican and desired
strongly a chance to fight, however his wife, her sister, and her mother, all staunch
confederates, resided in the same house. To compromise, TR, Senior hired someone to fight
for him and served the army in a civilian sense. TR, Junior has always been known as a
staunch militaristic man. Although his father was, in his own words, "the best man I ever
knew" (Miller 32), in his failure to fight for his government, Roosevelt felt ashamed, and
never mentioned this blemish on his father's great reputation in his Autobiography. It is
speculated that it was this lack of military display that encouraged Roosevelt to be so
military and almost hysterically desire warfare (Morris 40). Theodore Roosevelt, Senior,
was always a strong individual in body and soul. Consequently, he felt sympathy towards
those about him, and strove to help them by teaching mission schools, providing care for
poor children, and finding jobs out west for those upon whom hard times had fallen. He was
even known to take in invalid kittens, placing them in his coat-pockets (Morris 34). The
powerful mind and will of Theodore Roosevelt, Junior, however, was born into a sickly body.
Teedie suffered from bronchial asthma, and incurred, along with it, a host of associated
diseases such as frequent colds, nervous diarrhea, and other problems (Miller 31). He was
left very weak as a young child, and was often subject to taunting. His father spoke to
him, saying:
Theodore, you have the mind but not the body, and without the help of the body the mind
cannot go as far as it should. You must make your body. It is hard drudgery to make
one's body, but I know you will do it (Miller 46).
Accordingly, Teedie replied with fervor, "I'll make my body!" Indeed he did. The young
Roosevelt spent hours in the gym, working on weights to make himself better. It was this
indomitable spirit that pushed Roosevelt forward, and urged him into his form of powerful
politics. Theodore Roosevelt, Senior, had always hated politics. He had received a
particularly nasty dose when caught up in the Rutherford B. Hayes campaign. Roosevelt, a
Hayes supporter, had drawn the particular ire of Hayes' opponent for the Republican
nomination, Roscoe Conkling. Hayes attempted to put Roosevelt in as position of Collector,
but failed to receive senate nomination due to Conkling's ire (Miller 76-8). Theodore
Roosevelt, Junior, "inspired by his father's humiliation at the hands of the
politicians...was determined to become part of...the governing class" (Miller 110). This
inspiration was coupled in Roosevelt with a strong desire for power. Unlike many men who
had gotten into the political game, Roosevelt boldly admitted that he desired power, and
his desire served him well, allowing him to become a genuine career politician (Miller
111). The political game had not changed so much since Theodore, Senior had tried to run
it, and Theodore, Junior had an uphill battle. He had to fight from the beginning, but
fortunately was adequate in that respect. At first plagued by strict-line party voting,
Roosevelt managed to finally secure political office, but it was there that his true
troubles would begin. An important and revealing part of TR's early political career occurs
during his stint as a civil service commissioner in Washington. One memorable incident
occurred in 1889 when Roosevelt faced some difficult political maneuvering. In Milwaukee,
Postmaster George Paul was accused of making appointments to friends and altering records
to hide it. Hamilton Shidy, a Post Office superintendent, provided most of the damaging
evidence. The commission was to recommend Paul's firing, when Paul announced his term of
office was up regardless. The commission returned to Washington, where they learned Paul
had lied about his length of service. Roosevelt immediately drafted a call for Paul's
removal to the White House and the Associated Press. This publicity irked numerous
republicans who were no strangers to corruption themselves. Postmaster General Wanamaker,
who was not particularly fond of Roosevelt to begin with, was quite angry. He allowed Paul,
who had not been removed, to dismiss Shidy, who had been promised protection by Roosevelt,
for insubordination. Now Roosevelt was stuck between a rock and a hard place. He was bound
both to Shidy as a protector and to uphold his post, which would warrant Shidy's removal.
Wanamaker was trying to force Roosevelt to resign. Luckily, president Harrison intervened
and agreed to find a place for Shidy, but the battle was not over. As he waited for Paul's
removal orders from the White House, which were not forthcoming, Frank Hatton, the editor
of the Washington Post decided to launch an attack, lying blatantly about Roosevelt's
misappropriation of funds or other egregious acts. The Post fired back with more attacks,
causing Roosevelt to angrily point to Wanamaker's misdeeds. Rather than continue the
battle, Harrison managed to have Paul resign, and Roosevelt accepted half of a victory. He
had successfully stopped the wheels of the political machine once. It was not to be the
last time (Morris 403-8). Roosevelt spent several years as a commissioner of police in New
York City, eventually rising to become president of the board of commissioners. In these
years, the true signs of the presidency that was to come shone through. Two of Roosevelt's
closest acquaintances were Lincoln Steffens, and Jacob Riis (Morris 482), both reporters of
New York newspapers. It was through them that Roosevelt communicated to the people, and he
found it good practice to have the relayers of his messages be his friends. Through Riis'
book How The Other Half Lives, Roosevelt had learned of the plight of the poor. Roosevelt
saw the awful living conditions present in police lodging houses, and had them done away
with (Cashman 123). He battled police corruption, trying hundreds of officers and finding
corruption and graft in every corner of the department (Morris 491). When McKinley's first
vice-president, Hobart, died, Roosevelt found himself in the capacity of Governor of New
York. He had already fought in a war and been Assistant Secretary of the Navy, where he
helped to orchestrate the United States' roles in Cuba and Panama. Roosevelt's expansionist
views were here seen. As governor, he continued to defy the old political tactics,
including bossism. Platt, the political boss of New York, had gotten Roosevelt elected
governor, yet constantly ran up against Roosevelt, who would not follow any of his orders.
Roosevelt spent a good time of his governorship attempting to outmaneuver Platt and his
agents who were heavily present in the state legislature (Morris 708). Hobart's death, in
1899, forced the search for a new vice-presidential candidate, especially due to the
upcoming election. Roosevelt emerged as the leading candidate, to the dismay of the
Republican National Party's boss, Senator Mark Hanna. Hanna considered Roosevelt quite
dangerous; in the previous term Hanna had done a great deal of controlling the president,
and he feared what would happen if Roosevelt became vice-president. McKinley did not show
any special preference. Hanna chose his own candidate, John D. Long, but was convinced
through some slightly shady political maneuvering to vote for Roosevelt against his own
better judgment (Morris 727). Hanna's personal dislike of Roosevelt did not diminish in the
slightest, however. Shortly after the 1900 elections, Hanna sent McKinley a note saying
"Your duty to the Country is to live for four years from next March (Miller 342). McKinley
was re-nominated unanimously, receiving all 926 votes. Roosevelt received 925, the single
vote against him cast by himself (Morris 729). Roosevelt served four days as Vice President
before Congress adjourned until December. And when the news of McKinley's sudden death on
September 14 came to him he said, in a very un-Roosevelt-like manner, that he would
"continue, absolutely unbroken, the policy of President McKinley for the peace, the
prosperity, and the honor of our beloved country" (Barck 45). This was tradition for
replacement presidents, although it certainly seemed odd coming from such a strong-willed
man as Roosevelt. Roosevelt had already made himself extremely well known in the public
eye, so his transition to president was not as awkward as it might have been. Roosevelt
campaigned furiously during 1900, traveling a total of 21,209 miles and making 673 speeches
in 567 towns in 24 states (Morris 730). Only Bryan had campaigned more in the 19th century.
For this reason, Roosevelt was able to manipulate, to a certain degree, the popular press.
Although he disliked those "Muckrakers," as he called them, who looked for wrongdoing
everywhere and served mostly to stir sensationalistic ideas, Roosevelt had a certain
penchant for those like Steffens and Riis, who wrote copiously on the need for social
reform. To do his part, Roosevelt attempted reforms that would benefit the working class.
Unlike previous presidents, Roosevelt refused to use national force to break strikes. He
also instituted the Interstate Commerce Act, which, with the Hepburn Act, allowed
government regulation of transportation systems, preventing the railroad monopolies from
instituting unfairly high prices (Barck 52). Taking a cue from Upton Sinclair's The Jungle,
which detailed in vivid description the atrocious handling of meat at sausage factories,
Roosevelt had the Pure Foods and Drugs Act and the Meat Inspection Act passed, preventing
the manufacture of harmful foods and requiring inspection of meat facilities. A unique
aspect of Roosevelt's presidency was his foreign policy. Although McKinley had been
involved in Cuba and the Philippines, he had never expressed a wish to dominate as a world
power. Roosevelt had, indeed, operated a large part of the United States' aggressive role
towards Cuba, and in his presidency went even further to secure the United States as a
dominating power. In 1904 he declared what would become the Roosevelt Corollary to the
Monroe Doctrine in a letter to Secretary of War Elihu Root (Miller 394). Roosevelt argued
that it was a civilized nation's right to intervene if its neighbors are engaged in
wrongdoing. To that end, Roosevelt began to use force to preserve peace and order in the
Western Hemisphere. The Dominican Republic needed Roosevelt's help first, as it was being
harassed by Italy and France, to whom it owed large sums of money. To alleviate the
problem, a loan was set up from the United States. Although the Dominicans eventually
settled on the loan, anti-imperialists felt the United States was preparing to annex the
Dominican Republic. It has been said that "The Roosevelt Corollary['s]...promulgation was
proof that the United States realized its position as a world power" (Barck 100). Of
course, this was all contingent on Roosevelt's enforcement of his doctrine. Roosevelt
confirmed the role of the U. S. further by providing a strong military presence to wrest
the boundary line of Alaska from Canada in 1902 and most importantly, by determination and
perhaps a little impropriety in the annexation of the Panama Canal zone. Colombia had been
a friendly country to the U. S., and when Panama revolted it seemed suspect that the United
States should allow such an operation. But, as tends to be the case, Roosevelt wanted
Panama free for other means. In his words, he wanted to "take Panama," for a canal and he
did, demanding independence from a contract with England and grumbling when the deal ended
up to be a 100 year lease of the canal zone, rather than an outright purchase. The Panama
canal was, in Roosevelt's mind, to be as great a feat as the Louisiana purchase or Texas
annexation. It was a controversial measure, and showed Roosevelt's beliefs in the
superiority and rights of civilization (Miller 399). In 1907 Roosevelt finally decided he
had had enough and, rather than run for a third term, which he could have easily done,
virtually appointed William Howard Taft as his successor and went off to enjoy retirement.
Taft was a good friend of Roosevelt and shared many of his views. Under Taft, Congress
expanded the Conservation Laws, keeping alive TR's national parks service. In addition, 80
suits were initiated by Taft's attorney general on companies violating the Sherman
Anti-Trust act. Unfortunately, Taft's presidency was not nearly as successful as
Roosevelt's, for while the country became more and more progressive, Taft stood pat,
remaining mostly conservative (Barck 68). In response to Taft's conservative stance,
progressives united to form the National Progressive League. Meanwhile, Roosevelt returned
to politics. Bored with the quiet life, he desired the presidency once again, and naturally
went for the Republican ticket. However, Taft decided to give Roosevelt a little taste of
his own medicine, and refused to accede to Roosevelt, who was now playing the political
boss. The friendship that had existed between these two was splintered, and Roosevelt, in a
rage, formed the Progressive party and ran as a third candidate. Although he feared he
would be defeated if the Democrats nominated a progressive candidate (which they found in
Wilson), Roosevelt ran with his soul, as he did everything in life. At the Progressive
party convention, Roosevelt read aloud his "Confession of Faith," a sweeping charter for
reform that outlined the agenda for the twentieth century (Miller 528). The confession
advocated direct senate elections, preferential primaries, women's suffrage, corruption
laws, referendum and recall, a federal securities commission, trust regulation, reduced
tariffs, unemployment insurance, old-age pensions, anti-child-labor laws, and food purity
laws (Miller 528). Roosevelt lost the 1912 election, but he certainly did not lose power.
Over the next century, he would have every single part of his agenda made national law. The
turn towards progressivism was only beginning, and continued with Wilson. Although a
democrat, his views were remarkably progressive. They were also remarkably Rooseveltian.
Like Roosevelt, Wilson had a strong will and did not take kindly to dissent, as can be seen
by his appointment of Louis Brandeis to the supreme court over the objections of at least
six former presidents of the American Bar Association (Barck 110). Wilson also formally
reinvented the role of a strong executive demonstrated so heartily by Roosevelt by
delivering speeches directly before Congress, rather than having them read by a clerk.
Wilson kept alive Roosevelt's ideals with tariff reductions, the Federal Reserve System.
Wilson even advocated the democratization of the Philippines, even though he was strongly
anti-imperialist (Barck 121). Until the war in Europe distracted America long enough to
lead it eventually back into a post-war depression, Wilson carried on the traditions of his
political opponent, in the redefined presidency of the newly powerful United States.
Although the United States was moving ever forward in its effort to "policing the world" it
was not as progressive as all that in 1914. Even TR himself did not advocate joining in on
World War I, seeing no reason to take part in an affair that did not concern the United
States in the slightest. However, once German U-boats began sinking ships carrying American
passengers, Roosevelt changed his tune, along with a percentage of the American people.
Eventually, enough popular sentiment urged Congress to declare war, and it was done. It
seems here as if Wilson was dragging his feet, but in another generation, the mere
consideration of war in Europe would have been ludicrous. Having gotten its feet wet, the
United States became a first-class country with first-class responsibilities. The United
States advocated by TR continued after the war and beyond. After a brief interlude in which
everything seemed to revert back to the old ways and Americans looked again toward the
individual, another Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, used the ideas of his cousin to
reinvigorate the economy and rebuild the nation. Today, the reforms advocated by TR exist
and are in full use, while other more progressive reforms, like national health care, are
being considered. Although our civilization may not end abruptly in 1999, as predicted by
numerous psychics and fortune-tellers, it is probable that some large revolutionary act
will change the way our country works in four years or so, just as it has before. While our
Roosevelt may not have the immense popularity or wonderful charm as the original, it is not
doubtful that whoever it is will have to have will, strength, brains, and fortitude equal
to or above that of the original.
Bibliography
Barack, Oscar Theodore Jr., and Nelson Manfred Blake. Since 1900: A History of the United
States in Our Times. New York: MacMillan, 1974.
Cashman, Sean Dennis. America In the Gilded Age: From the Death of Lincoln to the Rise of
Theodore Roosevelt. New York: New York University Press, 1984.
Hagedorn, Hermann. The Boys' Life of Theodore Roosevelt. New York: Harper and Brothers,
1918.
Knoll, Erwin. Review of Theodore Roosevelt: A Life, by Nathan Miller. New York Times Book
Review, February 28, 1993. p.14. CD-ROM: Resource One.
Miller, Nathan. Theodore Roosevelt: A Life. New Yor: William Morrow, & Co., 1992.
Morris, Edward. The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt. New York: Goward, McCann, & Geoghegan,
1979.
Nash, Gary, et. al. The American People: Creating a Nation and a Society. New York: Harper
Collins, 1990.
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